dcjs

identification of bacteria

2012-01-27T11:00:00.000+08:00

try these exciting online methods of identification of bacteria, by staining and speciating it by pcr and more

enter the lab
bio-alive:bacterial identification

NAOE in microlec exam.

2012-01-05T10:41:00.000+08:00

principles of differential staining

2012-01-04T16:46:00.003+08:00

what happens in the cell during differential staining
see it with your naked eyes
click here

AURELIO tops physiolec and lab exams.

2011-12-29T09:29:00.000+08:00

bacterial cell lec slide

2011-12-12T08:58:00.000+08:00

please check on December 12, 2009 posting

PLAY BLOOD TYPING

2011-11-09T07:28:00.000+08:00

try your knowledge on blood typing and know what type of blood be transfused to different patient with different blood types

have fun and learn
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/landsteiner/landsteiner.html

what is crenation

2011-11-07T07:03:00.000+08:00

review the principles here
learn osmosis here
see how to do clotting time and bleeding time here

spontaneous generation of life

2011-10-27T10:06:00.000+08:00

Aristotle:
“readily observable that aphids arise from the dew which falls on plants, fleas from putrid matter, mice from dirty hay.”
REdi, Spallanzani and Pasteur: not true

check these tutorials
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/scientificmethod.html
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp03/0302003.html

NAOE AGAIN in physiolec finals.

2011-10-17T11:41:00.001+08:00

followed by SERRANO
AURELIO
TRIMANEZ
ESCOTO

ITS NAOE again in physiolab finals.

2011-10-12T09:37:00.002+08:00

congrats also to

AURELIO and TRIMANEZ.

renin-angiotensin aldosterone system tutorial

2011-09-28T07:57:00.002+08:00

click here to know how this system corrects blood pressure

cardiac walkthrough tutorial

2011-09-17T09:40:00.002+08:00

walk it right here

PATRON and NAOE top physiolab exam

2011-09-12T09:18:00.001+08:00

tutorial on cardiac cycle

2011-09-03T11:28:00.000+08:00

click here

muscle twitch

2011-08-10T10:13:00.000+08:00

To understand the experiment on muscle twitch one should review the structure of skeletal muscle. How the muscle is able to contract minimally and maximally. This has something or everything to do with the so called motor units.

http://members.aol.com/Bio50/LecNotes/lecnot14.html

take a look at this animation to understand how summation of forces can increase force of contraction

http://entochem.tamu.edu/VertInvertContractswf/index.html

useful links for muscle twitch

2011-08-08T07:55:00.000+08:00

pithing procedure
http://www.biopac.com/curriculum/pdf/a01.pdf

http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/neuro/muscle.htm

dissection for muscle nerve preparation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QbxN63V-w7w&feature=related

ANTI-PITHING CAMPAIGN
http://www.frogsite.org/Anti_Pithing.html

its LEDESMA again in slide ID.

2011-08-06T08:25:00.000+08:00

AURELIO and LEDESMA shine in physio exam.

2011-07-27T10:20:00.002+08:00

kidney histology tutorial

2011-07-08T12:37:00.003+08:00

click me and have fun

tutorial on types of tissue

2011-07-07T12:04:00.002+08:00

this is a tutorial on different tissues and be able to take the self-evaluation test at the end of the tutorial...have fun and learn

http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~biomania/tutorial/tuthisto/intro.htm

click me

skeletal muscle tutorial

2011-07-04T12:13:00.000+08:00

http://www.brookscole.com/chemistry_d/templates/student_resources/shared_resources/animations/muscles/muscles.html

principle of diffusion

2011-06-28T14:45:00.000+08:00

How molecules distribute itself in microcirculation. Transfer of substances in three compartments: intracellualry and extracellularly( interstitial and intravascularly).

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_diffusion_works.html

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_osmosis_works.html

what creates the pressure? It is kinetic motion of of particles that exert the pressure as it collide against each other in a give compartment. Watch and answere some questions
http://www.chm.davidson.edu/ChemistryApplets/KineticMolecularTheory/Pressure.html

action potential tutorial

2011-06-27T19:03:00.000+08:00

what is action potential? what are the mechanisms?

click this link to learn and have fun too!

http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential.swf

histology tutorial

2011-06-27T11:26:00.000+08:00

learn the different types of tissue thru this tutorial link
take the histology practical exam - if you can do it here you'll do it in our practical exam

http://www.okc.cc.ok.us/deanderson/dennis-tutorial/histologydef.html

http://www.gwc.maricopa.edu/class/bio201/histoprc/prac1q.htm

sodium pump - an electrogenic pump

2011-06-27T09:47:00.000+08:00

find out how sodium potassium pump restore normal resting electrical gradient of the cell membrane after an action potential. Note the disparity in the number of ions it transport in and out of the cell. The net result is restoring the ionic and electrical gradient in the membrane.

http://student.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit3/eustruct/sppump__rh_flash.html

do you know how to define genes?

2011-06-21T16:59:00.000+08:00

genes are made up of DNA. DNA in turn is made of mulititude of nucleutides. Nucleotide is a chemical compound made up of a nitrogen base, phosphoric acid and sugar.

genes are more known for its function in heredity but it is also respsonsible for the daily activity of the cell : that's why it is called the control center of the cell. Cytoplasmic activity is the due to enzyme-regulated chemical reactions. Genes dictate the kind of structural and globular protein that will be produced. The specialization of cellular function for instance is controlled by the genes.

But genes are inside the nucleus and to command cytoplasmic acitivity it needs to exert its control in the cytoplasm by some mechanism. This is thru RNA synthesis. With specificity of nitrogen base pairing this control mechanism of the genes is almost perfect till the code is translated in the cytoplasm

http://www.johnkyrk.com/DNAtranslation.html

simplified transcription http://www.ncc.gmu.edu/dna/mRNAanim.htm
http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/molgenetics/transcription.swf

translation of the message simplified http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/molgenetics/translation.swf

what happened in mutationhttp://www.biostudio.com/d_%20Streisinger%20Model%20of%20Mutation.htm

when mutation occurs then that's the start of the malignant growth or cancer
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/cancer/grow_flash.html

electron transport and atp synthesis tutorial

2011-06-20T07:15:00.000+08:00

beautiful! go through this link and don't forget to study the quizzes

click me now and learn

membrane potential- what is it?

2011-06-19T10:25:00.000+08:00

membrane potential is but the negative electrical charge inside the cell brought about by the difference in ionic concentration in and out of the cell. This again is due to the selective permeability of the membrane to these ions.
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp44/4401s.swf

microcirculation

2011-06-16T07:33:00.000+08:00

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JdQFIGgJF1U&feature=related

2011-05-02T09:23:00.001+08:00

Physiology Study Tips
Physiology is a difficult subject, covering a large volume of challenging materials.
Below are a number of suggestions you might consider that will facilitate learning and performing well on exams:

1. Come to class.
The best guide for understanding which concepts are most important and how they will be applied and examined is to attend lecture.
Studies have shown that you remember only 10% of what you read, but 20% of what you hear. So show up, listen and learn more.

2. Come to class prepared.
At a minimum, this means reading ahead the section of the print notes to be covered that day. Reviewing the previous day's notes as well will further prepare you for the lecture.

3. Come to class prepared to participate.
Don't just sit and stare at the print notes. Be active and take your own notes.
You remember even more of what you write than what you read or hear. When the lecturer poses a question, do your best to answer it. Raise your hand, or just shout the answer out--either way your efforts will be appreciated and will pay off (you remember 70% of what you say!).

4. Don't put off clarification of lecture concepts.
There will be times when you walk out of lecture without a clear understanding of a concept that was covered.
You have several sources for clarifying the concept, and should seek them out as soon as possible: read about it in the text, see your teaching assistant, or contact the lecturer for further discussion

5. Don't fall into a destructive exam pattern.
Don't cram for exams the night before. Allocate a few hours of study time per day, beginning at least 3 or 4 days before . Get plenty of sleep the night before the exam. Don't go on caffeine binges before, or alcohol binges after exams.

6. Join a study group.
Studying doesn't have to be a solitary, boring endeavor. Make it a social activity that you can look forward to, and enjoy. As indicated above, you learn a lot more by discussing something than by just reading it, and for that reason group work is highly effective as a learning tool.

7. Are you trying all of this, and still not making the grade?--- maybe this is not for you

VIRAY tops physiolab finals

2011-03-26T08:25:00.000+08:00

SPU PT GRADS LIVING THEIR DREAMS

2011-03-21T08:47:00.045+08:00

Dranreb Espura 2001, Las Vegas Nevada
Vanessa Espura 2002, Chicago, Illinois
Geordan Eula 2003,Taunton, Somerset

onalyn Paguntalan-Barbecho.2003 Eugene, Oregon
Carmela Ann Gilpo
2006 New York City
April Jane Corros
2002Gig Harbor, Washington
Joanna cadiz,2004, new york
Francis Raymund Jarangue 2000, Federal way Washington
Cherry Diaz-Estilo 2000, Waynesville, Wisconsin
Tanya Jardeleza
Gazella Vagilidad-Abdallah, 2005, New York
Aileen Sandoval, 2000 wa
Margaret Aguil Antiquiera. 2005 Mt. Vernon Wa
Diana Barrios, 2003, New York
ria Geinah Labanero. 2004. Mt. Vernon, WA
Karla Co, 2005, Florida
Mary Joy Rivero, 2000, PA

Anjanette Ang, 2000, Seattle, WA

Paul Raymund Evidente, 2001, PA
Mary Catherine Anas, 2000, California
Glenn aricaya,2002,Seattle ,WA.

John Caesar Tapiculin,2000,New York & Filamae Garnica, 2000, Florida
Mark Jamantoc, 2002, Seattle WA

2011-03-14T08:22:00.003+08:00

wednesday mar. 16 will be the finals exam in microlab...
focus on our bacterial ID acivities..classification of antibiotics...staining ...and disinfection and sterilization ..Good Luck guys..

cardiovascular system

2011-01-03T12:14:00.000+08:00

everything you have to know and pass CVS
learn and have fun answering quizes, it might just save you!CLICK NOW

AGANAnew face at the top in micro

2010-12-18T12:49:00.002+08:00

CASPILLO,CLEOPE!in physiolec

2010-12-17T09:32:00.000+08:00

CASPILLO,MAGUAD and DELFIN! SHINE in physiolab prelims

2010-12-15T09:54:00.002+08:00

NEW LIFE FORM DISCOVERED

2010-12-03T06:54:00.003+08:00

How is it different from life forms that we already know? Where did it come from?
find out here

osmosis tutorial

2010-12-03T01:56:00.000+08:00

still confused?
take tutorial here

proper technique of simple staining

2010-12-01T13:35:00.002+08:00

http://search.yahoo.com/search;_ylt=A0oGdVPQm_VMOlsBFQ9XNyoA;_ylc=X1MDMjc2NjY3OQRfcgMyBGFvAzAEZnIDeWZwLXQtNzAxBGhvc3RwdmlkA2t6bS5QMG9HZFRCVzB6X25UUFF1Mmd3WTBESlBkRXoxbTlBQUJieVoEbl9ncHMDMARuX3ZwcwMwBG9yaWdpbgNzcnAEcXVlcnkDc2ltcGxlIHN0YWluaW5nIGJhY3RlcmlhIHlvdXR1YmUEc2FvAzEEdnRlc3RpZANERkQ1?p=simple+staining+bacteria+youtube&fr2=sb-top&fr=yfp-t-701&fp_ip=ph&rd=r1&meta=vc%3Dph

one big bug in here

2010-11-25T10:52:00.002+08:00

another history- 8 TITLES IN 8 DIVISIONS

2010-11-16T09:09:00.003+08:00

The Pacman

History: physio 1 class promoted to physio 2 complete and intact

2010-11-04T12:19:00.006+08:00

A FIRST SINCE THE BIRTH OF SPU PT COURSE!

2010-10-16T07:30:00.005+08:00

VIRAY and CASPILLO top physiolab exam

CASPILLO and PALABRICA in physiolec exam

Please check Aug. 2008 posting for muscle twitch links

2010-08-14T09:53:00.000+08:00

CLEOPE- way above the rest in slide ID exam

2010-08-02T09:04:00.002+08:00

prelim exam -worst than basyang

2010-07-28T07:37:00.002+08:00

leading the group are:

CASPILLO
WOO
MILLIAM

sarcomere contraction

2010-07-16T08:33:00.002+08:00

review sarcmere contraction for the exam here

skeletal and smooth muscle lec slides are on january 2008 posting, please check these out!

tutorial on membrane potential

2010-06-29T11:09:00.002+08:00

membrane potential tutorial

click here

sequence of events here

cellular transport tutorial

2010-06-22T08:40:00.000+08:00

http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/membrane_transport/membrane_transport.htm

http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/membrane_transport/membrane_transport.htm

where did ATP come from? find out

2010-06-18T14:52:00.000+08:00

How Cells Make ATP
by PHOSPHORYLATION... adding a phosphate to ADP ADP + P ------> ATP

a) substrate level phosphorylation...
where a substrate molecule ( X-p ) donates its P to ADP making ATP b) chemiosmosis - [Oxidative Phosphorylation of Krebs cycle & ETC]... food substrates donate e- & protons to acceptor molecules [NADH], i.e., oxidation. NADH gives up electrons & protons are pumped out of mitochondria (or the chloroplasts in photosynthesis); protons diffuse back into mito thru an enzyme - ATPase, the ATPase enzyme makes ADP + P --> ATP figure * c) photophosphorylation.... e- of light energy, instead of food covalent bonds, are captured by chlorophylls to make a proton gradient across the chloroplast membranes... figure* protons move through a chloroplast ATPase enzyme to make ATP

http://student.ccbcmd.edu/biotutorials/energy/chemios.html

Oxidative Metabolism... (cell respiration) occurs in heterotrophic organisms that consume foods ... we say organisms oxidize (consume) foods (often glucose) to make energy because they remove & capture electrons... ... where is energy in foods? it's in the covalent bonds (e-)
Thus - METABOLISM is cells capturing e- via REDOX reactions REDOX REACTION... e- passed from one molecule to another [PGAL --> NAD+] in a chemical rx energy is transferred into the new molecule (a reeox couple) by holding e- OXIDATION = removal of electron &/or proton from food covalent bond REDUCTION = gaining electron &/or proton; adds an electron to an acceptor molecule

Cell RESPIRATION...

a more complete definition of cell respiration : - series of enzyme rx's (biochemical pathways) in the cytoplasm & mitochondria that, - remove e- (oxidation) from covalent bonds of substrates (as glucose), and - pass e- to acceptor molecules [coenzymes] such as NAD+ & FAD* which become reduced [ NADH & FADH2 ] - the reduced coenzymes [ NADH & FADH2 ] pass e- to other acceptors... a series of protein electron carriers called cytochromes, - the electron carriers [cytochromes] pass e- to O2 --reduction--> H2O - cytochromes also pump protons [H+] out of mitochondria into peri-mito space, - protons move back into mito thru a special enzyme (ATPase) & make ATP

KEY Reactions of KREBS CYCLE 1. NAD is reduced (NADH) and FAD is reduced (FADH2) 2. substrate level phosphorylation occurs (GTP <--> ATP) 3. decarboxylation [-COOH] 4.* an acylation reaction via coenzyme-A (forms Acetyl-coA) SUMMARY Reactions: [Krebs Cycle Quicktime Movie*] Summary f igure full cycle*

why is phospholipid very effective as barrier system

2010-06-17T10:04:00.001+08:00

watch how phospholipid molecules behave if placed in acqeous solution. Watch formation of fat globules
tell me if you're convinced

http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/Hughes/tutorial/cellmembranes/orient2.swf

or capy paste this link in your add bar:

http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/biology/downloads/membranes/

HERNANDEZ recouped in physiolec finals

2010-03-26T09:07:00.002+08:00

Gayoles resurfaced also

CONGRATULATIONS

2010-03-25T09:27:00.007+08:00

You have brains in your head. You have feet in your shoes. You can steer yourself in any direction you choose. You’re on your own. And you know what you know. You are the guy who’ll decide where to go. — Dr. Seuss

USERO - Paulinian Medical Therapist 2010

congrats and Godspeed guys

its BACTOL again in microlec

2010-03-19T07:49:00.003+08:00

Sapalaran, Gayoles, Alfeche and Correa are not far behind

BACTOL again in physiolab

2010-03-15T13:03:00.005+08:00

followed by

BION, GAYOLES and HERNANDEZ

well done guys

BACTOL a cut above the rest

2010-03-13T15:35:00.003+08:00

tops microlab finals

physio lab finals tomorrow

2010-03-11T07:47:00.003+08:00

take a deeper last look at our ppt presentation on reflexes..may help you a lot

good luck guys

just do it...just do it...just do it...

could anybody do a better pupillary reflex

2010-03-01T08:24:00.001+08:00

lecslides on relfexes and GI physiology available on Feb. 09 posting

2010-02-28T15:29:00.002+08:00

BACTOL and SAPALARAN top physiolab midterm exams, LABITORIA in physiolec

2010-02-19T07:11:00.006+08:00

ENERGY PATHWAYS FOR EXERCISE

2010-02-16T07:16:00.002+08:00

We've learned that carbohydrates and fats being the source of energy for physical activities. In the same token we know that the main source of energy is ATP either from aerobic or anaerobic metabolism.
What exactly goes within the cells during exercise is explained in this article. Go for it now.
energy pathways during exercise

enterobacteriaceae slides

2010-02-09T11:33:00.000+08:00

check on january 2008 posting

body temperature regulation

2010-02-05T07:38:00.003+08:00

temperature regulation tutorial- click here
lec slides now available at January 2008 posting

CVS lecture slides

2010-01-25T08:28:00.000+08:00

check these slides on January 2008 posting

slides on gm negative bacteria

2010-01-20T08:39:00.004+08:00

hey guys! you missed class the last time. check out the slides on gm negative bacteria on January 2008 posting and be ready for quiz...concentrate on N. meningitidis, spirochaete and leptospirosis...nice reading

Hernandez tops micropathlec exam

2009-12-25T14:05:00.008+08:00

Bactol in micropathlab

Sobrevega in physiolec

bug investigators

2009-12-18T11:02:00.005+08:00

hard-working micro students

miss evidente evidently doing 'distance learning'

bacterial cell lec slide

2009-12-12T08:52:00.000+08:00

Prokaryotes (Bacteria)
• Eubacter "True" bacteria
– human pathogens
– clinical or environmental
– one kingdom
• Archaea
– Environmental organisms
– second kingdom
Eukaryotes
• Other cell-based life e.g.
– plants
– animals
– fungi
Prokaryotic Cell (versus Eukaryotic Cell
• Not compartmentalized
• Cell membranes lack sterols (e.g. cholesterol)
• Single circular chromosome
• Ribosomal are 70S

Bacteria
• Plasmids
• Extra-chromosomal DNA
• multiple copy number
• coding pathogenesis and antibiotic
resistance factors
• bacterial replication
The Cell Envelope
Oxidative phosphorylation occurs at cell membrane
(since there are no mitochondria
The ceined: caA‪yer or glycocalyx
• usually polysaccharide
• often lost on in vitro culture
• protective in vivo
• Many bacterial cells secrete some extracellular material in the form of a capsule or a slime layer
• A slime layer is loosely associated with the bacterium and can be easily washed off

• whereas a capsule is attached tightly to the bacterium and has definite boundaries
Endospores (spores
• Dormant cell
• Produced when starved
• Resistant to adverse conditions
- high temperatures
- organic solvents
• Bacillus and Clostridium

Culture and identification of infectious agents
Taxonomy
• Defines common traits among strains for a bacterial species

• Usually genetic

• Allows development of diagnostic kits
TAXONOMY
Classification, Nomenclature, Laboratory Identification
Identification of infectious agents
in the diagnostic laboratory
• Aids treatment
• Helps antibiotic selection
• General hospital laboratory
– physiological tests
• Reference laboratories
– Genetic tests
Steps in isolation and identification
• Step 1. Streaking culture plates
�A‪yer or glycocalyx
• usually polysaccharide
• often lost on in vitro culture
• protective in vivo
• Many bacterial cells secrete some extracellular material in the form of a capsule or a slime layer
• A slime layer is loosely associated with the bacterium and can be easily washed off

• whereas a capsule is attached tightly to the bacterium and has definite boundaries
Endospores (spores
• Dormant cell
• Produced when starved
• Resistant to adverse conditions
- high temperatures
- organic solvents
• Bacillus and Clostridium

Culture and identification of infectious agents
Taxonomy
• Defines common traits among strains for a bacterial species

• Usually genetic

• Allows development of diagnostic kits
TAXONOMY
Classification, Nomenclature, Laboratory Identification
Identification of infectious agents
in the diagnostic laboratory
• Aids treatment
• Helps antibiotic selection
• General hospital laboratory
– physiological tests
• Reference laboratories
– Genetic tests
Steps in isolation and identification
• Step 1. Streaking culture plates
– colonies on incubation (e.g 24 hr)
– size, texture, color, hemolysis
– oxygen requirement
Samples of body fliuds (blood,urine,csf)
• Step 2. Colonies Gram stained
– cells observed microscopically
Gram stain morphology
• Shape
– cocci (round)
– bacilli (rods)
– spiral or curved (e.g. spirochetes)

• Single or multiple cells
– clusters (e.g. staphylococci)
– chains (e.g. streptococci)

• Gram positive or negative

Step 3. Isolated
bacteria are speciated
• Generally using physiological tests
Step 4.
Antibiotic susceptibility testing
Molecular differentiation
• Genomics

• Gene characterization
– Sequencing
– PCR

• Hybridization

• % guanine + cytosine
16S rRNA Sequencing
• Differentiates bacterial species
• Development of clinical tests based on sequence (e.g. PCR)

Rapid diagnosis without culture
• WHEN AND WHY?
• grow poorly
• can not be cultured
Microscopy
• spinal fluids (meningitis)
• sputum (tuberculosis)

• sensitivity poor
Serologic identification
• antibody response to the infecting agent

• several weeks after an infection has occurred

Nutrition, Growth and Metabolism
Bacterial requirements for growth
• oxygen (or absence)
• energy
• nutrients
• optimal temperature
• optimal pH
Respiration
• Respiration is the oxidation of a source of energy by removal of electrons and donation to an inorganic terminal electron accepter.
Fermentation
• Fermentation is defined as an energy yielding process whereby organic molecules serve as both electron donors and electron accepters

• The molecule being metabolized does not have all its potential energy extracted from it. In other words, it is not completely oxidized
Oxygen Requirements
Obligate aerobes must grow in the presence of oxygen they cannot carry out fermentation
Obligate anaerobes do not carry out oxidative phosphorylation they are killed by oxygen
Aerotolerant anaerobes are bacteria that respire anaerobically but can survive in the presence of oxygen
Facultative anaerobes can perform both fermentation and aerobic respiration
Microaerophilic bacteria grow well in low concentrations of oxygen,but are killed by higher concentrations.
Obligate aerobes
• grow in presence of oxygen
• no fermentation
• oxidative phosphorylation
Obligate anaerobes
• no oxidative phosphorylation
• fermentation
• killed by oxygen
• lack certain enzymes
superoxide dismutase
O2-+2H+ H2O2
catalase
H2O2 H20 + O2
peroxidase
H2O2 H20 /NAD NADH
Facultative anaerobes
• fermentation
• aerobic respiration
• survive in oxygen
Microaerophilic bacteria
• grow
– low oxygen
• killed
– high oxygen

Optimal growth temperature
• Mesophiles:
– human body temperature
* pathogens
* opportunists
• pyschrophile
– close to freezing
• thermophile
– close to boiling
pH
• Many grow best at neutral pH
• Some can survive/grow
- acid
- alkali
Nutrient Requirements
• Carbon
• Nitrogen
• Phosphorus
• Sulfur
• Metal ions (e.g. iron)

Siderophores (S)
Small molecule secreted by bacteria that bind iron
Measuring bacterial mass in liquid cultures of bacteria
Common methods include:
a) turbidity (the cloudiness of a liquid culture of bacteria –
a measure of total bacteria [live and dead]
b) the number of viable bacteria in a culture –
usually assessed by counting the number of colonies
that grow after streaking a known volume on a plate
Measuring bacterial mass (live + dead) in liquid culture
Measured with spectrophotometer
Measuring viable bacteria
Colony forming units

SUGAR CATABOLISM
• Glycolysis
– Embden Meyerhof Parnas Pathway
– most bacteria
– also animals and plants

STERILIZATION
• All killed
• non-selective
• autoclaving
• 121oC (heat/pressure)
* Heat resistant materials
• ethylene oxide
• Non heat resistant
– usually equipment
• ultra-violet light
– surfaces (e.g operating rooms)
not totally effective
• gamma radiation
– food
– some mail
Disinfection
• Liquids that kill bacteria
– e.g. phenol based
– too toxic for skin surfaces
Antiseptics
• Topical (e.g. skin)
– e.g. iodine or 70% alcohol
– “reduce” bacterial load
ANTIBIOTICS
• Selectively toxic for bacteria
– bactericidal (killing)
– bacteriostatic (growth inhibition)

• no harm to patient
• destroy structures
• present in bacteria
• not present in host

Antibiotics work together
with immune system
Minimal inhibitory concentration
• lowest level stopping growth

• e. g. zone of inhibition around a disk impregnated with antibiotic

• Antibiotics that inhibit cell wall
biosynthesis are bactericidal

• Without cell wall, osmotic pressure
causes bacteria to burst

Antibiotics: Protein Synthesis, Nucleic Acid Synthesis and Metabolism
Principles and Definitions
• Selectivity
– Selectivty8 toxicity9
• Therapeutic index
– Toxic dose/ Effective dose
• Categories of antibiotics
– Bactericidal
• Usually antibiotic of choice
– Bacteriostatic
• Duration of treatment sufficient for host defenses
• Categories of antibiotics
– Use of bacteriostatic vs bactericidal antibiotic
• Therapeutic index better for bacteriostatic antibiotic
• Resistance to bactericidal antibiotic
• Protein toxin mediates disease – use bacteriostatic protein synthesis inhibitor
• Antibiotic susceptibility testing (in vitro)
– Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
• Lowest concentration that results in inhibition of visible growth
– Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)
• Lowest concentration that kills 99.9% of the original inoculum
• Combination therapy
– Prevent emergence of resistant strains
– Temporary treatment until diagnosis is made
– Antibiotic synergism
• Penicillins and aminoglycosides
• CAUTION: Antibiotic antagonism
• Penicillins and bacteriostatic antibiotics

Antibiotics that Inhibit Protein Synthesis
Protein Synthesis Inhibitors
• Mostly bacteriostatic
• Selectivity due to differences in prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes
• Some toxicity - eukaryotic 70S ribosomes
Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis
• Rifampin, Rifamycin, Rifampicin, Rifabutin (bactericidal
• Quinolones (bactericidal)
nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, norfloxacin, levofloxacin, lomefloxacin, sparfloxacin
Antimetabolite Antimicrobials
• Inhibitors of Folic Acid Synthesis

• Sulfonamides, Sulfones (bacteriostatic)
• Trimethoprim, Methotrexate, Pyrimethamine (bacteriostatic)
Antimicrobial Drug Resistance
Principles and Definitions
• Clinical resistance
• Resistance can arise by mutation or by gene transfer (e.g. acquisition of a plasmid)
• Resistance provides a selective advantage
• Resistance can result from single or multiple steps
• Cross resistance vs multiple resistance
– Cross resistance -- Single mechanism-- closely related antibiotics
– Multiple resistance -- Multiple mechanisms -- unrelated antibiotics
Antimicrobial Drug Resistance Mechanisms
• Altered permeability
– Altered influx
• Gram negative bacteria
– Altered efflux
• tetracycline
• Inactivation
– $-lactamse
– Chloramphenicol acetyl transferase
• Altered target site
– Penicillin binding proteins (penicillins)
– RNA polymerase (rifampin)
– 30S ribosome (streptomycin)
• Replacement of a sensitive pathway
– Acquisition of a resistant enzyme (sulfonamides, trimethoprim)
Pathogenicity
• virulence factors
• number of initial organisms
• immune status
Koch's postulates
• isolated
– diseased not healthy people
• growth
– pure culture
• induce disease
– susceptible animals
• re-isolated
– susceptible animals

Opportunistic infections
• compromised people
– normal flora
– environment

Opportunists - normal flora
• Skin
– Staphylococcus aureus,
– S. epidermidis
– Propionibacterium acnes
• Intestine
– Bacteroides
* high numbers
– Enterobacteriaceae
* low number
Opportunists - environment
» air
• water
• soil
• food
• Opportunists in hospital- nosocomial

Transmission
• airborne droplets
• food
• water
• sexual contact
Host defenses
• Gut
– peristalsis
– defecation
• respiratory tract
– ciliary action
– coughing
– sneezing
• urogenital tract
– urination
COMMENSALS CAUSE DISEASE
WHEN HOSTS DEFENCES ARE LOW
PATHOGENS POSSESS VIRULENCE FACTORS
THAT ENABLE THEM TO CAUSE DISEASE IN
THE PRESENCE OF NORMAL DEFENCES
DETERMINANTS OF BACTERIAL PATHOGENISIS
TRANSMISSION
INFECTING DOSE-INOCULUM
PORTAL OF ENTRY
BACTERIAL VIRULENCE FACTORS
CAPSULES
INVASIVENESS
ADHESINS
EXOENZYMES
TOXINS
CAPSULES
LOCATED EXTERNAL TO THE CELLWALL
COMMON VIRULENCE FACTOR
POLYSACCHARIDES
AVOID OR SURVIVE PHAGOCYTOSIS
ADHESINS
ALLOW BACTERIA TO STICK ON MUCOSAL SURFACE
ADHESINS ARE SURFACE FACTORS
PILI / FIMBRIAE
LPS LIPOPOLYSACCARIDE SIDECHAINS
M PROTEIN
INVASIVENESS
ABILITY TO INVADE HOST CELL
MULTIFACTORIAL COMPLEX PROCESS
MAY INCLUDE ADHESION AND ENZYMES FACTORS

EXOENZYMES
PRODUCE AND SECRETED BY BACTERIA
ENZYMES THAT BREAKDOWN COLLAGEN AND FIBRIN
COLLAGENASES / HYALURONIDASES / FIBRINOLYSINS
ENZYMES THAT BREAKDOWN CELLULAR MATERIALS
PROTEASES / LECITHINASES
ENZYMES THAT DEACTIVATE AND MODIFY ANTIBIOTICS
BETA LACTAMASE
ENZYMES THAT DESTROY NEUTROPHILS
AND MACROPHAGES
LEUKOCIDINE
ENZYMES THAT ACCELERATE FIBRIN CLOT
COAGULASE
TOXINS
2 CLASSIFICATIONS
EXOTOXINS – PROTEINS PRODUCED AND
SECRETED BY BACTERIA
ENDOTOXINS – PART OF THE BACTERIA ITSELF
EXOTOXIN
NEUROTOXINS- AFFECT NERVOUS TISSUE
TETANUS TOXIN
ENTEROTOXINS – AFFECT GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
CHOLERA TOXIN
CYTOTOXINS – AFFECT CELLS OF VARIOUS TISSUES
DIPHTERIA TOXIN
ENDOTOXINS
ALL GM NEGATIVE BATERIA HAVE ENDOTOXINS
IN OUTER MEMBRANE
RELEASED AS BACTERIA ARE LYSED
RESPONSIBLE FOR SEPSIS AND
SEPTIC SHOCK - FATAL

ectron transport chain of proteins

2009-12-04T12:08:00.003+08:00

synthesis of ATP is a series of reduction-oxidation(redox) reaction..
watch and learn by reviewing the questions

lecture slides on renal physio

2009-11-19T12:19:00.000+08:00

please check on june 2009 posting

how the kidney works

2009-11-17T07:03:00.002+08:00

nice animation how the kidney does its work

how kidney works

microscopic pictures of bacteria

2009-11-12T12:34:00.000+08:00

see the bacilli here
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/~johnson/labtools/Dbacyst/bacilli.html

see the cocci here
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/~johnson/labtools/Dbacyst/cocci.html

and the rest here
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/~johnson/labtools/Dbacyst/bacyst.html

incentive spirotmetry

2009-11-12T12:06:00.006+08:00

please check November 2008 posting regarding the use of incentive spirometer
ready: inhale, blow till your dizzy

blood clot formation

2009-11-12T11:45:00.000+08:00

Its but rbc and platelets trapped in a meshwork of fibers called fibrin

These are the general processes involved in clot formation

1. vasoconstriction
2. formation of platelet plug
3. formation of clot
4. formation of fibrous tissue

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2002_general/Esp/folder_structure/tr/m1/s7/trm1s7_3.htm

check lecture slides on Jan.08 posting

nervous regulation of arterial pressure

2009-11-11T08:06:00.000+08:00

Read chapter 18 Guyton
Learn how the sympathetic system is able to regulate arterial pressure and how the CNS is able to have an overall control on this
Study the reflexes that enable the body to maintain normal arterial pressure in different situations

http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200079.htm

http://www.1on1health.com/web/info/hypertension/english/high-blood-pressure-animation/AnimationPage/LookListenLearnType=1

mast cell and non-specific inflammatory response

2009-11-03T11:30:00.000+08:00

Mast cells are present in most tissues in the vicinity of blood vessels, and are especially prominent near the boundaries between the outside world and the internal milieu, such as the skin, mucosa of the lungs and digestive tract, as well as in themouth and conjuntiva and nose

Mast cells play a key role in the inflammatory process. When activated, a mast cell rapidly releases its characteristic granules and various hormonal mediators into the interstitium and starts the inflammatory process

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/inflammatory.html

lecture slides on general pathology

2009-11-02T12:10:00.001+08:00

please check slides on January 08 posting

A DISASTER WORST THAN ONDOY

2009-10-21T07:27:00.002+08:00

GARCIA TOPS the finals

general scores are disappointing. some options are still available

attention raster: get in touch after you and your classmates reach a consensus

CARDIAC CYCLE self-help

2009-10-02T08:17:00.015+08:00

helpful links and take the quiz!
blausfuss multimedia
cardiac cycle tutorial
phases of carciac cycle

copy-paste this link to your add bar if links above fail to connect
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter20/animation__the_cardiac_cycle__quiz_1_.html

HERNANDEZ Tops physiolab midterm

2009-09-16T11:55:00.002+08:00

followed by
BACTOL
NO NAME
BION SAPALARAN

puppy of kobe my g.dane

2009-08-28T10:13:00.003+08:00

a blue-eyed harlequin dane..there were actually 12 puppies but only 2 managed to survive..this is my puppy share

TURNER tops physiolab exam

2009-07-30T08:21:00.002+08:00

followed by GAYOLES and BACTOL

BACTOL AND GAYOLES top-notch in physio lec exam

2009-07-29T11:26:00.004+08:00

regenerative medicine

2009-07-24T12:05:00.005+08:00

an exciting and rapidly rising new field of medicine dedicated to using stem cells to repair and replace damaged cells and tissues. While research continue to move forward some centers(mentioned in previous article) are already using stem cells to treat heart diseases, nervous system dysfunction and malignancies. The possibilities seemed limitless. This is science and technology enabling extra lease on life. Amazing!

http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/2006report.htm
ohri.ca/programs/regenartive

ms Sapalaran tops physio practicals

2009-07-21T11:03:00.004+08:00

autologous adult stem cell transplant

2009-07-18T09:24:00.010+08:00

using one's own cell scientists can convert these cells into stem cells and using growth factors 'educate' these cells to target specific damaged tissues. once grafted themselves in these areas of tissues or organs regeneration and repair begins. hundreds of cardiac patients has undergone this treatment and results are quite encouraging. soon they may also be able to grow organs for transplant from stem cells in the laboratory. either way future is limitless for stem cell therapy..

reference

transplant organs from stem cell

regenocyte therapy

Here are the top eight stem cell treatment centers in the world. There are two in Latin America, two in Europe, one in Israel, and three in Asia. Why are they "top?" Because they are led by top-notch physicians who are also outstanding stem cell researchers, including world #1s in stem cells:

for Cancer & Leukemia (Israel),
for Congestive Heart Failure (Thailand),
for Diabetes (Argentina),
for Kidney (Dominican Republic),
for MS (China & Israel),
for Optic Nerve Disorders (China),
for Parkinson's (Germany)**,
and the unquestioned world pioneer in "Complete-break Spinal Cord Injury" (Portugal).

practicals in lab tomorrow

2009-07-16T11:21:00.001+08:00

please review the histology tutorial...

smooth muscle tutorial

2009-07-11T08:50:00.009+08:00

whfreeman.com

gone too soon

2009-07-08T14:32:00.007+08:00

rest in peace mj....
michael is finally back...see last rehearsal 2 days before he left

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FcCL8vZNSe0

physiology of muscle contraction

2009-07-06T09:20:00.008+08:00

be sure to digest everything that is explained and take the quiz. capy paste if the link won't work
have fun

http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/muscletissue/contraction/propagation/tutorial.html
www.getbodysmart.com
www.blackwellpublishing.com

membrane potential tutorial

2009-07-01T17:27:00.002+08:00

whfreeman.com membrane potential

renal physiology lec slides

2009-06-19T12:12:00.001+08:00

1.maintenance of the body fluid
compositions and volumes

2.production of a
low-volume, highly concentrated urine to rid the body of metabolites,
drugs, and other undesirable substances without wasting water
Distribution of Water among the Body Fluids
 body typically contains about 60% water by weight (1 L H2O = 1 Kg)
 intracellular fluid (67% inside cells) and extracellular fluid (33% outside
 cells)
 plasma water (25%) or
 interstitial fluid (75%)
Shifts of Water between Body Fluid Compartments
 Osmotic gradients

 asymmetric distribution of ions across a semi-permeable membrane

 Water will continue to traverse the cell membrane until the
 osmotic pressure on each side of the membrane becomes the same
 (equilibration)
FUNCTIONS:
1. Blood volume and composition
2. Blood pressure
3. Metabolism
PRIMARY FUNCTION…
EXTERNAL ANATOMY
A. Hilus
B. Layers of the Kidney
a. renal capsule
b. adipose capsule
c. renal fascia
NEPHRON
- functional unit of the kidney

3 basic functions:
A. filtration
B. secretion
C. reabsorption

Parts:
A. Renal Corpuscle
B. Renal Tubule
RENAL CORPUSCLE
A. Glomerulus
B. Glomerular (Bowman’s) Capsule

Parts of the renal corpuscle….

The Renal Corpuscle…. Convoluted tubules…

CORTICAL AND JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRONS
- Loop of Henle
- Location of Glomerulus
Functions of the Nephrons:
1. Control blood concentration and volume
2. Regulate blood pH
3. remove toxic wastes from the blood

Processes of Urine Formation:
A. Filtration
B. Reabsorption
C. Secretion
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
- principle is forcing of fluids through a membrane
- occurs in the renal corpuscle
- BP forces water
- resulting fluid is called the FILTRATE
- most proteins are large enough to pass through the endothelial-capsular membrane

 Approximately 25% of the cardiac output or 1200 ml of blood per minute is received by the kidneys.

 One liter of urine is the end product of more than 1000 liters of circulating blood processed through the kidneys.
 The JGA plays a major role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
 The JGA has also been implicated in the autoregulation of GFR.
renin-angiotensin system
 or the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a hormone system that helps regulate

 long-term blood pressure
 and blood volume in the body.
 The system can be activated when there is a loss of

 blood volume or
 a drop in blood pressure
 decreased perfusion of the juxtaglomerular apparatus in the kidneys then the juxtaglomerular cells release the enzyme renin.

 Renin cleaves an inactive peptide called angiotensinogen, converting it into angiotensin I.

 Angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which is found mainly in lung capillaries
 it is a potent vasoconstrictor.

 In the kidneys, it constricts glomerular arterioles

 increases the arterioler resistance, raising systemic arterial blood pressure

 In the adrenal cortex, it acts to cause the release of aldosterone
 Aldosterone acts on the tubules
 ---reabsorb more sodium and water from the urine.

 acts on the central nervous system to increase a person's appetite for salt, and to make them feel thirsty.
Clinical significance
 The renin-angiotensin system is often manipulated clinically to treat high blood pressure.

 Inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE inhibitors) are often used to reduce the formation of the more potent angiotensin II.

 angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) can be used to prevent angiotensin II from acting on angiotensin receptors.

 180 L/day > amount of filtrate that enters the capsular space

 178-179 liters are returned to the bloodstream by reabsorption

 1-2 liters are excreted as urine

Special features of the renal corpuscles enhance their blood filtering capacity:
1. Glomerular capillaries are long
2. The filter (endothelial-capsular membrane) is porous and thin
- fenestrations generally do not restrict
passage of solutes
3. Capillary blood pressure is high
Net Filtration Pressure
Three Main Pressures in the glomerulus:
A. GLOMERULAR BLOOD HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (GBHP)
- blood pressure inside the glomerular capillaries
- usually 60 mmHg

B. CAPSULAR HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (CHP)
- due to: a. walls of the capsule
b. fluid that has already filled the renal tubule
- filtrate push back
- 15 mmHg amount of push

C. BLOOD COLLOID OSMOTIC PRESSURE (BCOP)
- due to the presence of PROTEINS
- the greater the solute concentration, the greater is its osmotic
pressure
- usually 27 mmHg
NFP = GBHP - (CHP + BCOP)
Promotes Oppose
Filtration Filtration

Calculation:

GUYTON: GBHP = 60 mmHg
BCOP = 32 mmHg
CHP = 18 mmHg
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE
- the amount of filtrate in all renal corpuscles of both kidneys every minute
- in normal adults ------ 125 ml / min ; 180
L / day
- directly related to NFP
Regulation of GFR
systemic blood pressure and
diameter of afferent and
efferent arterioles
Principal mechanism:
A. Renal Autoregulation of GFR
- operates by negative feedback system
- involves the juxtaglomerular apparatus
B. Hormonal Regulation
Two hormones:
A. Angiotensin II
> Stimuli for renin secretion
1. decreased delivery of fluid and NaCl
to the macula densa
2. decreased stretch of the juxtaglomerular cells
3. sympathetic nerve stimulation

Important action of ANGIOTENSIN II:

1. Vasoconstriction
2. Aldosterone (adrenal cortex)
3. Thirst (hypothalamus)
4. ADH (posterior pituitary gland)
B. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
- secreted by cells in the atria
- stretch of the heart

Important action:
1. promotes excretion of both water and sodium
2. increases GFR > increasing the permeability of
the filter
> dilating the afferent arteriole
3. lowers blood pressure
4. reduces water retention
C. Neural Regulation
- sympathetic stimulation - vasoconstriction
TUBULAR REABSORPTION
1. REABSORPTION IN THE PCT
A. Sodium
- concentration of Na inside tubule cells are low
- interior of the cell is negatively charged
- passive diffusion of Na+ through leakage channels
- Na pumps expel Na through primary active transport
- K+ can diffuse back out through K+ leakage channels
-
MAIN EFFECT: reabsorption of Na+
- active transport of Na+ promotes reabsorption of water through osmosis
- reabsorption of Na+ increases osmotic pressure in the tubule cytosol and in the blood in the peritubular capillaries
B. Nutrients
- 100% of filtered glucose, amino acids and other useful metabolites are reabsorbed in the PCT
- reabsorption by Na+ symporters (secondary active transport)
- Na+ symporter (integral membrane protein)
- substances brought into to the PCT by SYMPORTERS generally leave by facilitated diffusion

Values:
100% - nutrients
80 to 90% - HCO3
65% - Na+ and water
50% - Cl+ and K+
2. REABSORPTION IN THE LOOP OF HENLE
- cells in the thick ascending limb of the Loop of Henle features SYMPORTERS
- simultaneously reclaim one Na+, one K+ and two Cl+ from the filtrate
- secondary active active transport mechanism
- K+ are allowed to recycle through leakage channels
-
MAIN EFFECT: reabsorption of Na+ and Cl+
- DESCENDING LIMB – absorbs water
- ASCENDING LIMB – little or no water

3. REABSORPTION IN THE DCT AND COLLECTING DUCTS
- fine tuning of salt and water reabsorption
- two hormones act on PRINCIPAL CELLS – regulate
absorption

A. Aldosterone
- secreted by adrenal cortex
- increases Na+ and water reabsorption by principal
cells

B. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- secreted by the post. pituitary gland (hypothalamus)
- increases water permeability by the principal cells
low water concentration in the blood

increased secretion on ADH (osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

stimulate production of water channels

increased permeability of the apical membranes of principal cells

water is passes into the cells and into the blood

NOTE:
Absent ADH - 20 liters/day of dilute urine
ADH present - 400-500 ml/day of concentrated urine
TUBULAR SECRETION
SECRETION OF H+
- normal blood Ph (7.35 to 7.45)
- occurs in the epithelial cells of the PCT and collecting ducts

Ways in which the cells in the renal tubule can raise the blood pH:
1. secreting hydrogen ions into the filtrate
2. reabsorbing filtered HCO3 (important buffer of H+)
3. producing new HCO3 to augment buffering of H+
CO2
Diffusion from tubular blood
Diffusion from tubular fluid
Metabolic reactions within epithelial cells

presence of carbonic anhydrase (CA)

CO2 combines with water

Forming carbonic acid H2CO3
H2CO3 dissociates into

H+ and HCO3 ions

H+ is secreted into the tubular fluid (filtrate)
accomplished by Na+/H+ antiporters

HCO3 diffuses into the peritubular capillaries
NOTE: for every H+ secreted, one ion of HCO3 is returned to the blood….
secreted H+

combines with filtered HCO3

forming H2CO3

dissociates into CO2 and H2O

CO2 diffuses into the tubule cells

CO2 joins with water forming H2CO3
NOTE: as the H+ is secreted into the tubular fluid, HCO3 is reabsorbed into the blood together with Na+

OVERALL RESULT: reabsorption of Na+ and HCO3
Tubular reabsorption (movement from tubule into interstitial fluid and then blood)
 A) Proximal convoluted tubule -most reabsorption of substances occurs here
 Sodium ions reabsorbed via active symporter pumps.
all glucose and amino acids move with Na in symporter pumps.
 most Cl– and almost all HCO3- ions passively diffuse down their electrical gradient, following Na+
 positive ions (K+ and Ca++) diffuse down their electrical gradient, following negatively charged HC03 and Cl-
 most water moves to accumulation of ions in interstitial fluid (movement of Na+, Cl– and other dissolved substance) by osmosis (osmotic pressure being higher in interstitial fluid than filtrate)
 B). Descending loop of Henle (always permeable to H2O)
 passive H2O reabsorption following osmotic gradient set up by Na and CL reabsorption by ascending loop in medulla (and accumulation of urea also in medulla)
 C. Ascending loop of Henle (always impermeable to H2O)
 does not allow water back into filtrate but pumps out Na and Cl
(Medullary osmotic gradient magnified by this countercurrent multiplier
 D. Distal convoluted tubules
 a) Ca+ reabsorption promoted by PTH.
b) more Cl and Na+ ions reabsorbed promoting little more water reabsorption
 From PCT to DCT all reabsorption is obligatory-it will always occur.

 In the collecting ducts, hormones determine reabsorption.
 E . collecting ducts

 (reabsorption/secretion due to levels of hormone, ADH or Aldosterone)
 water...
a) if high levels of ADH then more water pores made in cells so more water reabsorbed (forming little concentrated urine)
 b) if low levels of ADH then less water pores made in cells so water not reabsorbed (forming copius dilute urine)
 Sodium
 c) if high levels of aldosterone then more Na/K+ pumps made in cells so more Na reabsorption/K secretion
 d) if low levels of aldosterone less Na/K+ pumps made in cells so less Na reabsorption/K secretion.

do you know brownian motion?

2009-06-17T11:08:00.001+08:00

diffusion and brownian motion
In cell biology, diffusion is a main form of transport of necessary materials such as amino acids through cell membranes watch this
http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/Applets/brownian/brownian.html

APOPTOSIS- for curious Ms Hernandez

2009-06-16T09:07:00.000+08:00

what difference is there between apoptosis and necrosis
Disintegration of cells into membrane-bound particles that are then eliminated by phagocytosis or by shedding.

normal cells commit suicide when they were finished being useful
while cancer cells lived on and on. Now, researchers have found a way to trick cancer cells into bowing out gracefully... cure for cancer?

http://www.whfreeman.com/kuby/content/anm/kb04an01.htm

see the death enzymes- caspases and the sound of dying!!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9KTDz-ZisZ0&feature=related

cell tutorial

2009-06-11T09:06:00.005+08:00

http://www.tvdsb.on.ca/westmin/science/sbi3a1/Cells/cellquiz.htm --'copy-paste' this link to your address bar

http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/cell_structure/cell_structure.htm

study of cell - tutorial

2009-06-03T08:40:00.002+08:00

http://www.biology.arizona.edu/DEFAULT.html -- copy paste this link in your address bar

GAITANO, QUERUBIN- top micropath-lec finals

2009-03-26T12:25:00.000+08:00

LIM, PARK - top physiolab finals

2009-03-25T10:17:00.005+08:00

surging above the rest in physio-lec finals
OGACION CORREOS PARK QUEROBIN DEOCAMPO ALAVE ACLAO

in micropath lab
TIONKO LASTIERRI BLASURCA LABARO OCACION

on caloric restriction, exercise and longevity

2009-03-23T12:38:00.006+08:00

Caloric restriction (CR) refers to a dietary regimen low in calories without undernutrition. This regimen seemed to delay the onset of various chronic disorders thus increasing longevity. Some people might find this program starving and results in low quality of life.

So instead of having huge reduction of caloric intake another option is to increase caloric expenditure by exercise. Though some studies on this showed conflicting results.

But if you are really the lazy-kind and hate exercise and being starved close-to-death there is one thing left for you to do. Take resveratrol(longevity pill?). It goes directly to the triggering mechanism that prevents dna damage due to extraneous factors and thus delay onset of inflammatory and maybe neoplastic conditions : activating the sir2 genes known as longevity genes.

http://genesdev.cshlp.org/content/17/3/313.full
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080514064921.htm
http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/07/caloric-restric.html